![]() ![]() ![]() In this thesis, a spectral approach was designed based on the frequency distribution of the reflectance and spectral ratios to distinguish between the foliage and woody materials. Previous studies have suggested that using spectral information to distinguish foliage from wood materials is unlikely to provide an accurate classification on its own. In addition to estimation of variables such as stem density and the diameter at breast height and tree height, dual- and multi-wavelength systems are now being tested to distinguish foliage and wood based on their reflectance properties. The recent advances in terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) technologies have provided new opportunities to measure the 3D structure of forest canopies, which in turn can be correlated to tree attributes. Three-dimensional characterisation of foliage and wood distribution within forests is essential for understanding, managing and monitoring forest ecosystems. With contributions from leaders in the field, this title is an indispensable resource for graduate students and researchers in academia and industry, working in chemical engineering, mechanical engineering and energy policy. Chapters discuss the issues associated with commercial development and deployment of GGRs, providing potential approaches to overcome these hurdles through a combination of political, economic and R&D strategies. This book provides the most up-to-date information on GGR technologies that provide removal of atmosphere CO2, giving insight into their role and value in achieving climate change mitigation targets. In the context of recent legally binding legislation requiring the transition to a net zero emissions economy by 2050, GGR technologies are broadly recognised as being indispensable. GGR technologies will be essential in limiting global warning to temperatures below 1.5☌ (targets by the IPCC and COP21) and will be required to achieve deep reductions in atmospheric CO2 concentration. Most of the current GGR technologies focus on carbon dioxide removal, these include afforestation and reforestation, bioenergy with carbon capture and storage, direct air capture, enhanced weathering, soil carbon sequestration and biochar, ocean fertilisation and coastal blue carbon. ![]() Greenhouse gas removal (GGR) technologies can remove greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. ![]()
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